In addition to the above technologies, Indian medicine in its evolved stage was in place in the first century. These sites range in size from large urban centers greater than 100ha to much smaller sites in the 15ha range. English, the language the British used to rule the Indian subcontinent, was the linguistic link between the two wings.

In 2007, the worldwide retail value of color cosmetics alone (i.e., products intended to alter the users facial appearance, but not skin care, hair care, perfumes, etc.) His observations in 1854 identified the Broad Street water pump in London as a likely source for the spread of cholera (Figure 2) and, despite general disbelief, he convinced the Board of Guardians at Saint James Parish to remove the pump handle.

These innovations led to a divide and conflict between small, mostly beach-based and large-scale, industrial units based in harbours who frequently share inshore fishing grounds [44,45,4648]; while the significant increase in production brought about alarming ecological degradation [49]. Cosmetic practices are not only widespread but also difficult to eradicate.

motorization of craft, introduction of synthetic fibres, refrigeration, and fish-finding techniques). The Indian Express website has been rated GREEN for its credibility and trustworthiness by Newsguard, a global service that rates news sources for their journalistic standards. These items were produced by professional cosmetics makers. The archaeological work, by Europeans and Indians, helped move back the known beginning of civilization in South Asia to about 3000 BC through the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization. One of the most advanced and mysterious ancient society, the Indus River Valley civilization, was completely lost to history until the 1920s. Figure 2.7. Pottery and seals use surprisingly similar proportions. By 1800 BC, the whole area grew colder and drier, and its suspected that tectonic movements in the area heavily disrupted or diverted the rivers on which the Harappans relied. They also entered into banking and steam shipping businesses to facilitate financing and trade for the British. European authors had presented extensive reports on this practice in an effort to learn and improvise the practice for European use. Pakistan is blessed with many colors of nature having spring, summer, winter and autumn, fertile agriculture lands, green pasturelands, water reservoirs, surplus wheat, rice, maize, corn, cotton and many other cereals, fruits and vegetables, etc., for domestic use and export. Sumerian cuneiform texts referring to trade mention semiprecious stone; metals such as gold, silver, and copper; ivory; ebony; and various types of animals from Mehluhha in exchange for fish, grain, and wool. Although opposed by the English [32], the idea of free seas for trade still exists today, while the right of navigation is limited to riparian states on inland rivers. In the early 20th century, the spread of the communist ideology resulted in radical ideas on fresh water rights and state ownership also being transferred to Asia, and through Europe to Latin America [35].

Late Harappan from 1900 to 1300 BC, marked by violence, breakdowns in social order, the abandonment of most settlements, and the eventual extinction of the Indus Valley people. Harappan male skull stored in Kolkatas Anthropological Survey of India Palaeoanthropology Repository contained a Trephination hole, according to the research article.

Unfortunately, many a time, some of the scientific and rational principles were mixed with religious beliefs. However, hundreds of other sites have now been documented across a vast region stretching from the foothills of the Himalayas to Iran and Afghanistan in the west, eastwards into the GangaYamuna doab, and across Saurashtra to the Gulf of Khambhat (Kenoyer, 1998). In agriculture, India developed a national agricultural research system and an agricultural extension system alongside the Green Revolution that significantly increased agricultural productivity and helped increase the diversity of India's agriculture. Dharampal (2000) found that some of the initial accounts did not present a comprehensive understanding of science and technological advancements in India as it was, due to the lack of requisite comprehension amongst the learned of Europe of the prevailing non-European practices and technologies.

The contributions of the Harappan civilization helped lay a strong foundation for science in India, he said. Growth of Recognized Educational institutions from 19501951 to 19901991.

Bricks are virtually identical in size, shape, weight, and material, even among different cities. In 2000, it had a literacy rate of 43.2% and a life expectancy of 60 years. Despite its status as an economic, technological, and social powerhouse, the Harappan civilization simply fell apart in a span of two or three centuries. the EU) made their own rules and sought government support for new national laws and bilateral and plurilateral agreements, at the cost of traditional law and local fisher rights [15]. Indian soil was fertile in general and the farmer was knowledgeable about every detail of his profession.

The second limitation was related to Indian manufacturing.

Similarly, in the 20th century fishing law also evolved and put traditional fisher law under significant pressure. In most instances when technology was required by the industry, it was imported and adapted to Indian requirements.

Typical Indus craft items such as beads; shell ornaments; terracotta figurines; and objects of copper, bronze, silver, and gold have been recovered from many different types of sites, indicating the existence of strong intraregional networks linking villages, towns, and larger urban centers (Kenoyer, 1998; Possehl, 2002). through the use of conventionalized ligatures. India became independent from British rule on August 15, 1947. We will discuss medical science in the Indus Valley Civilisation with evidence of trephination and tooth drilling uncovered by archaeologists. In turn these rules began to influence formal rule-making in many parts of the South. Having recently led an international team of excavators at a Harappan site in Rakhighari, Haryana, which helped rewrite the age of the civilization to 8,000 years, Shinde has extensively studied the subject. In modern day developing country contexts, we find a similar situation. Ayurveda, the Indian medicine system, is a holistic approach to health that builds upon the tripartite Vedic approach to the world. Some depict them being carried in a ceremony, while others include downright mythological creatures such as unicorns.

Imports included minerals from Iran and Afghanistan, lead and copper from other parts of India, jade from China, and cedar wood floated down rivers from the Himalayas and Kashmir. With these changes in the environment, the Indian Vaishya community across the country entered other industries, sugar, cement, textiles, construction, chemicals, newspaper, and publishing and a host of other fields with their enormous capital (Dharampal, 2000). Oceans and fresh water bodies provide societies all over the world with crucial resources and ecosystem services [10], and have a long and complex history of regulation and law [11]. The reform process has had its impact on technology, innovation, and entrepreneurship in India, the details of which have been explained in the following chapters. The walls are speculated to have played a double role, protecting the Harappans both from invasionsand floods.

This is quite vexing, as the first recorded notes regarding the civilization come from 1826, penned by a British army deserter named James Lewis/Charles Masson, who noticed the presence of mounded ruins at the small local town of Harappa while posing as an American engineer. India produced very prominent astronomer-mathematicians and made rapid strides in technological advancements in several fields in the medieval period. While the early invaders Indianized themselves, the interests of the British were rooted in their home country. This is supported by the discovery of a massive dredged canal and a suspected docking facility in Lothal, on the Indian Oceans coast, and the use of seashells in their arts and crafts. In the field of shipping, the British adapted several improvements from India to their shipping. Although India made rapid strides in science, technology, innovations, trade, and commerce, it had certain limitations that created an environment conducive for European conquests of India. In 1702, the proposal to limit maritime jurisdiction to three nautical miles [33] remained valid for a long time till such territorial rights were extended to 12 nautical miles, and exclusive economic zones to 200 nautical miles in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea [34]. In principle, laws have always emerged from local customs. This has led many researchers to believe that Harappan script evolved independently of those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, or China. One of the reasons for the flourishing of science, technology, and innovations in ancient and medieval India was the availability of state support in various forms from most rulers alike, be it the Guptas or the Rajputs or the Deccan kings or the Mughal rulers.7 In fact, during the Mughal rule of India, science and technology developed mainly due to the interests of Emperors and Sultans, particularly in astronomy, agriculture, engineering, architecture, and medicine. As environmentalism became more important, environmental rules for water management and the concept of sustainable development began to influence water laws [40]. Climatic conditions also spurred the need to preserve and prevent spoilage of food, which gave birth to techniques for preserving fruits, vegetables, fish, and meat. These rules were a compilation of common elements from existing legal practices. A widely-accepted theory is that they fell to a nomadic Indo-European tribe called Aryans, which invaded and subsequently conquered the Harappians. Provincial food authorities are playing their part in the adoption of international best practices. The spread of cholera in this region was probably multifactorial, including the lack of proper disposal of human waste especially in rapidly growing peri-urban communities, limited and poorly maintained water treatment and distribution systems, poor hygiene practices, and disposal of cholera-contaminated sewage into coastal waters. The economic breakdown of India under British rule and harsh fiscal policy eliminated indigenous sciences and technologies from both society and the Indian memory.

Large fishing enterprises at national and international level (e.g.

The first is the 1991 cholera epidemic in Peru that resulted in 1.3million cases of cholera and approximately 13000 deaths in South and Central America between 1991 and 1995. Though it was of exceptional quality, it was highly labor-intensive. Industrial training institutes and polytechnics were also established to provide skilled manpower. Technological advancements in the field of metallurgy continued in this period. Note: Professional Education includes Engineering, Technical, Architecture, Medical, Education, and other colleges.

Such lack of understanding was even more evident amongst the learned of Britain who, till about 1800, seem to have lagged behind some of the other parts of Europe in many scientific and technological fields by about 50 years. This statement is profound since it implies that the Indian science and technology in the eighteenth century was so advanced that it was beyond the comprehension of Europeans at that time (Dharampal, 2000). It is a silicon-based device and has the ability to split Hydrogen and Oxygen in the water.

The knowledge and expertise of Indians in astronomy and mathematics even in the eighteenth century intrigued the explorers. However, the above measures did not translate into radical technological and innovative developments in the country.

The Vedas describe knowledge in pairs such as groups of: logic (Nyaya) and physics (Vaisheshika), cosmology (Sankhya) and psychology (Yoga), and language (Mimamsa) and reality (Vedanta).. Political and economic factors such as the absence of effective communication systems, primitive modes of transport that prevented secure movement of goods and people especially during the Mughal period, a network of customs barriers, and the existence of innumerable systems of currency (about 1000 in circulation) led to the development of regional markets or the so-called village self-sufficient economy. Growth Performance of Indian Economy in the Planning Era, 19501989, Rate of gross capital formation (refers to 3-year average of base year in each column), Average annual increase (Rs crores at 19701971 prices) in public investment, Note: Figures refer to 19801981 prices unless otherwise stated. No Indus temples have ever been documented but evidence for ritual activity is materially marked by small objects and features such as figurines, ring stones, and brick-lined pits interpreted as fire altars. Additionally, it has been suggested that the sophisticated hydraulic features found at most Indus sites indicate a ritual association with water or bathing (Possehl, 2002).

Egyptian hieroglyph illustrating water clarification techniques. 2007-2019 ZME Science - Not exactly rocket science.

The history of these countries brings to light the bearing that the political environment and ideology that a country espouses and develops over a period of time has on its innovative capabilities. Dharampal (2000) studied in detail the works of various such authors and provided an analysis of the state of science, technology, and society during this period, which was a period characterized by European dominance. This translated into a need for indigenous science and technology to avoid economic dependency and to have a significant presence at the global level. This empire was one of the largest empires in the history of India extending in the west to what is now Afghanistan and some of the finest architectural structures were built during this period. We refer to them by names we ourselves have given them just something to keep in mind as you read further on. A Bronze Age Harappan skull has been revealed to have traces of ancient brain surgery with the help of surgical tools, according to researchers at the Anthropological Survey of India. Multiple legal traditions thus operate over the same fresh water resources [5458]. Although our knowledge of political and social organization is still uncertain, the Indus civilization is typically classified as a state level society, with features of complexity comparable to the contemporaneous Bronze Age societies of the Old World in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Western and Central Asia, and the Arabian Peninsula. Military dictators ruled Pakistan for 23 years, starting with Field Marshal Ayub Khan (19581969) and followed by General Yahya Khan (19691971) and General Zia ul-Haq (19771988). Not only were they surprisingly standardized, as weve seen, but they also took a lot more time, effort, specialized know-how, and resources to produce than sun-baked bricks, which were the norm at the time. Partly, this exploratory lag came down to archaeologists assuming the bricks and ruins were crafted during the Maurya Empire, which dominatedIndia between 322 and 185 BCE. Devanagari also has the capacity to transform basic CV symbols into ones representing more complex consonantal components (CCV, CCCV, etc.) Other cultures of the same era, such as the Indus Valley Civilization, also appeared to have developed complex water and sanitation systems in their cities. Religious rules which focused on the religious significance of water, its ownership, penalties for misuse, and the notion of priority of use (i.e. Bengali was the language of 98% of the people in East Pakistan.

Some five millennia ago, a people settling the lands between todays Afganistan, northwest India, and Pakistan rose to the forefront of civilization, knowledge, and sophistication at the time. Food grain consumption had dropped; 70% of industrial employment was located in the Presidency cities and port-towns concentrated in a few sectors like agro-based industries, repair activities, steel factories, textile industries, and rudimentary cement and sugar industries; the transport network was linked only with metropolitan towns. Between 1837 and 1847, prompted by the changes in the cultural environment and inspired by the success of enterprises set up by the British agencies, Hindus from other castes also started entering the business domain in partnership with the British.

While the river allowed them to re-establish villages and farms, these communities could not dream to produce the same agricultural surplus as the Indus River basin and the extensiveirrigation systems built there.

It consisted of technological innovations in fishing, processing and marketing (through e.g. People of the Harappan civilization were the real pioneers of science and technology in India, said Vasant Shinde, senior archaeologist and vice-chancellor of Deccan University. Many of the technologies developed are still used in rural parts of India, said Shinde. The colonization of Africa, Asia and Latin America, led to the spread of these very rules to those regions. While there is circumstantial archaeological proof of ancient fishing activity [24], written evidence of rule-making is more sparse. The discovery of iron played a role not only in monumental architecture but also in the mastery of metallurgical skills. As a result, the private sector did not develop the requisite innovative capabilities. Cesarean section, bone setting of high skill, and plastic surgery were the highlights of Indian surgery at that time.

Post-1820s, most of the non-European world was described as backward and barbaric in European theory. As populations in the cities grew dramatically during the nineteenth century, the crisis of uncovered waste attracted increasing attention. Thus, some researchers have speculated that religion in the Indus Valley centered, in some way, on animals.

Tomb of Amenophis II at Thebes (1450 BC). Bhskara, a brilliant mathematician and astronomer from the twelfth century, was the author of the book Siddhanta Shiromani that was in four parts: (i) Lilavati on arithmetic, (ii) Bijaganita on algebra, (iii) Ganitadhyaya, and (iv) Goladhyaya on astronomy. We know they were able to build impressive structures, as they show an advanced understanding of architecturewith dockyards, granaries, cisterns, warehouses, and fortifications. When researchers found the proto-dentistry skills of the people of Mehrgarh in the early 2000s, they were ecstatic. It was evident that the efforts in terms of schooling, health indicators, and employment outcomes were not commensurate with population pressures. However, certain developments introduced by the British to enable their trade and commercesuch as the emergence of unified currency, abolition of irksome custom barriers, advent of liberal reformist movements, establishment of post and telegraph systems, and construction of roads and railwayshelped in expanding markets and the horizons of business during the latter half of the nineteenth century. Other cultures of the same era, such as the, Innovation, Entrepreneurship, and the Economy in the US, China, and India, ).

Post-1780s and more after 1820, knowledge of the non-European world did not have much utility for the European world, and Indian science and technology met the same fate as its sovereignty and political systems. However, the central concern of the earlier work was with the meticulous reconstruction of dynastic history, especially the correct chronology.

Environmental concerns have resulted in the ecosystem approach being applied to fishing [52,53]. National level conferences, workshops, and seminars are being organized with participation from all stakeholders to discuss and stress upon this important issue of a National Food Standards council. In this environment, the seeds of the urban hygiene movement flourished. Theres also evidence that they practised tooth drilling. For example, religious conquests and colonialism often led to new regulations being introduced, but most often these were not enforced unless the ruler wanted control of a specific water body, as took place for example in India [54] and Kenya [55]. They also seem to have been a peaceful people; despite their skill with metal, weve found strikingly few Harappan weapons.

Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro featured citadels, heavily fortified areas thick with defensive structures a feature other important and well-off cities likely shared. The demand for Indian goods in Europe was great in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and the exploits of the East India Company further augmented the demand. There is good archeological evidence that early civilizations recognized the importance of water and sanitation, especially in large metropolises (Gray, 1940). To treat head injuries or remove bone splinters or blood clots resulting from a blow to the head, prehistoric societies performed Trephination surgery, which entailed drilling or cutting through the skull vault. Figure 2.8. Their success was builton a solid agricultural base (they grew various crops, from dates to cotton, in the fertile soils of the valley) and cutting-edge technologies, including indoor plumbing, sophisticated city-planning and public sewage systems, breakthroughs in crafting techniques, writing, and one of the most advanced understandings of metallurgy at the time. In this period, shipping technology developed around the Indus by the Mauryan empire in India, by the Chinese, Arabians and Romans, and trade routes were mapped out. Very often, the various sets of rules continued to co-exist. Technology, innovations, and entrepreneurship in Indian history can be viewed in four distinct partsAncient Indian period, medieval period, period of British rule, and postindependenceprereform period. The process of Trephination was practised by the people of Indus Valley Civilisation that acts as a medical intervention and helps treat migraine and mental disorders by making a hole in the patients skull. Technological progress, as a result, varied across sectors and the growth in GDP was fluctuating (Table 2.5). Maarten Bavinck, Joyeeta Gupta, in Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 2014. The constitution stood suspended for eight years during the third martial law period, which began when Zia ul-Haq ousted Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Another example is the Minoan civilization (27001450BC), on the island of Crete, which was found to have well-developed stone sewer drains and the ability to carry water in pipes under pressure. Whatever the reason, by around 1700 BCE, most of the Indus Valley Civilization cities had been abandoned.

Cemetery H, which had red ware but not conventional Harappan ceramics, was where it was found. The country originally included the Bengalese territory of East Pakistan, which achieved its separate independence in 1971 as Bangladesh. Aryabhatta in his book Aryabhatiyam, which dates back to the Gupta period, describes cosmic, planetary, and mathematical theories including the theory that the Earth spins on its own axis, theories of the lunar eclipse, reflection of sunlight by the moon and planets, and the theory of relativity of motion. We believe having had a history of innovation does provide a perspective on the intrinsic nature of a culture and its people and a potential proclivity towards reverting to that behavior under the right circumstances. We, therefore, traced the role of technology and innovation in the phenomenal rise of China and India in the distant past and examined the factors that obstructed innovation in later years, which resulted in the subsequent decline of these economies. The proportion of CSIR activities leading to industrial production was small except in certain sectors like leather and small-scale industries. He also found that the highly sophisticated astronomical observations and findings that the eighteenth-century Indian astronomer perused were products of the ancient Indian astronomers, which were passed on to the Brahmins of the eighteenth century. Not the same thing can be said about their childrens toys, however, of which they seemingly couldnt get enough of, both in quantity andvariety. Copyright 2022 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. They were friendly people, who used their knowledge and resources in building a nation-like setup benefitting people at large, said Shinde.

The disintegration manifested itself in the form of haphazard growth of urban dwellings and decline in the maintenance of irrigation systems, ultimately making it susceptible to natural disasters such as floods, droughts, fires, and earthquakes and eventually resulting in the extinction of this once vibrant civilization.2, Following the Indus Valley Civilization was the Vedic period and the written evidence of knowledge of sciences in India can be traced back to the Vedic times. Thousands of seals and sealings have been recovered, many with common motifs such as the unicorn, humped bull, various wild animals, and a horned male figure sometimes referred to as a proto-Shiva (see Figure1). However, to address the need to produce scientists and engineers to support the economic and social development of India postindependence, the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were set up starting from 1951. Although there is evidence of cranial trauma, the Trephination on the Harappa skull was done to treat it, as shown by a noticeable linear depression, which was presumably caused by a violent blow, according to the study by A.R. For example, while there are treaties that restrict ocean pollution, the Climate Change Convention implicitly allows for ocean acidification. Examples of community self-regulation in water use and access can be found all over the world. This blue revolution took place first in the North, and after WWII in the newly independent South. The question that emerges is: how are the above trends related to legal pluralism?

The Indus or Indus Valley civilization is also known as the Harappan culture, in reference to the site of Harappa which, along with Mohenjo Daro, is one of the best known of the Indus urban sites. He gave power series expansions for trigonometric functions and correct to eleven decimal places for pi. These urban centers were planned near riverine or seaports to facilitate trade. In his opinion, the eighteenth century Indian astronomer had little knowledge of the principles on which his rules are founded and no anxiety to be better informed.. The 23-feet high iron pillar built in the fifth century in Delhi has withstood more than 1500 monsoons without a trace of rust. More recent evidence, however, contradicts this theory. The importance of trade and commerce to the Indus society is clear, and has been linked to both its rise and fall. Beyond the above innovations in the physical world, the psychological aspects of a human mind were also given importance. It has been used in religious ceremonies and to fend off evil spirits in several parts of the world. Initially, dictionaries were needed as new ideas were being developed as a result of interaction between Sanskrit and other languages. N. Mahmood, R. Malik, in International Encyclopedia of Education (Third Edition), 2010. With them, the Harappan peoples stars waned, never to recover.

In the meantime, archaeologists have scrambled to understand the Indus River Valley civilization but weve been able to confirm frustratingly little from all weve found. The experiment of removing the pump handle was an effective measure to curb the cholera outbreak in that neighborhood, which had claimed more than 500lives. Trade of Pakistan is improving with the harmonization and compliance of national and international standards. These scripts, Kharoshthi and Brahmi, probably developed from the Aramaic consonantal writing system. As shown in Figs.

which uses should be prioritized over other uses) were frequently superimposed on existing rules [27,28]. Figure1. The symbols resemble plant and trident-like shapes and are completely unlike anything weve ever seen.

Sushruta Samhita has chapters on surgery that indicate many inventions of medical instruments and surgical operations.

Drilled molar crowns from nine adults found in a Neolithic graveyard in Pakistan that dates between 7,500 and 9,000 years ago are described in this paper. These findings show that early farming cultures have a long legacy of a form of proto-dentistry. A scholarly journal published in Nature in April 2006 stated that the earliest evidence for human teeth being drilled in vivo (i.e. China started off as an economy with significant inventive capabilities but subsequently witnessed a decline due to the then-prevalent political, ideological, and social conditions.